Substitute Medicines

Balanium oil:
-Oil of Sesame
Balm (Melissa):
i. Horehound;
ii. Citron peel;
iii. Melissa axillaris
Balsam Oil:
i. Liquid Storax;
ii. Saffron;
iii. Oil of Cloves; of Spikenard; of Myrrh; of
Citron seed;
iv. expressed Oil of Nutmeg
v. clear Turpentine;
vi. Balsam of Peru;
vii. Myrtle juice (G)
Balsam Fruit:
i. Cardamon (G);
ii. Cubeb (lesser dose);
iii. Juniper berry;
iv. Clove;
v. Nutmeg;
vi. Lentisk seed
Balsam Wood:
i. Mace;
ii. Cyperus
iii. Mace & Cyperus (equal parts);
iv. Yellow Sandalwood;
v. Aloeswood;
vi. Lentisk wood; ‘tendrils of Lentisk’;
vii. Ivy wood;
viii. Lovage root;
ix. Violet root (G)
Balsamita (‘Water Mint’):
i. Mint;
ii. Marjoram
Barberry fruit:
i. Sour Pomegranate;
ii. Currants;
Barberry bark:
i. Chinese Scutellaria Huang Qin.
ii. Sandalwood and Tabasheer were used.
Basella rubra (Upodika, Potaki):
i. Spinach,
ii. Purslane (Ayurveda)
Basil:
-Water cress (G); Marjoram (A)
Basil seed:
-Plantain seed
Basil:
-Balm (for the Heart)
Bay berries:
-Wild Thyme (G)
Bay leaf:
-Citrus leaf
Bdellium (Indian: ‘Guggulu’):
i. Myrrh (except in pills of Bdellium);
ii. Gum Ammoniacum;
iii. Sphagnum odoratum (G)
Bearberry:
i. Water Plantain
Bear’s Breech (Acanthus):
i. Mallow;
ii. Comfrey;
iii. Olive leaf (G)
Bears foot:
-Mallows
Bedeguar (excrescnce made by an insect on the Briar Rose):
i. Fumitory;
ii. Avens root
Beet seed:
i. Lotus seed (G)
Behen, Red (Salvia haematodes) & White
(Centaurea behen):
i. Tormentil root and Avens commonly replaced
the two Behens.
ii. Tormentil and Valerian.
iii. Elecampane or Angelica were also used;
iv. White Behen can be replaced by Satyrion
or Wild Asparagus root or Withania
v. Red Behen can be replaced by Wild
Parsnip root, Red Carrot or Bistort.
vi. In Unani, Cheiranthus cheiri and Curculago
orchioides are used as substitutes for Behens.
Belladonna:
-Datura
Benzoin:
-Mastic. (U)
Berberis aristata fruit:
i. Phyllanthus emblica (Emblic Myrobalan).
ii. Bergenia ligulata (B. himialaica):
iii. Aerva (lanata, scandens);
iv. Coleus amboinicus;
v. Bryophyllum pinnatum;
vi. Rotula aquatica;
vii. Homonoia riparia;
viii. Iris pseudoacorus;
ix. In Unani, Gentian (as a resolvent)
x. Valerian (half quantity); Capers root-bark
and Costus (in equal parts).
Berthelotia lanceolata:
-Senna
Betel leaf:
-Vernonia javanica
Betel nut:
-Red Sandalwood (U)
Betony:
i. Parsley;
ii. Burnet;
iii. Vervain
iv. Balm
Birthworts (see also Aristolchia):
i. Mace
ii. Arum root prepared
iii. Zedoary, Zerumbet
iv. Colchicum,
vi Madder
vii. Stephania tetrandra (Han Fang Ji) and
Cocculus orbiculatus (Mu Fang Ji) are
accepted substitutes in TCM; the former is
stronger for Damp, the latter for Wind.
viii. In Europe the root of Bulbous Fumitory
(Corydalis bulbosa) was said to supply  
the market with ‘Round Birthwort’.
Birthwort, Round:
-Zedoary and a third part Mace and half
part Costus (Av)
Birthwort, Long:
-equal part Zedoary, half part Black Pepper (Av)
Bittersweet:
-Sarsaparilla; China root;
Blepharis edulis:
-Sebesten (Cordia latifolia) (Unani)
Blessed Thistle:
i. various other Thistles have been used similarly;
ii. St. Mary’s Thistle
iii. Angelica was also used similarly.
Blue Poppy (Meconopsis):
-Corn Poppy ?
Boerhaavia diffusa (syn. B. repens, B. coccinea):
i. Safflower,
ii. Panax notoginseng (San Qi) (U)
Bombax malabarica:
i. Gum Arabic
ii. Catechu,
iii. Eriodendron anfractosum (U)
Borage:
i. Bugloss;
ii. Rose,
iii. Violet;
iv. Chicory
Borage flower:
-Jacaranda acutiolia flower (Unani)
Box:
-see Buxus
Brank Ursine/Bear’s Breech:
i. Comfrey;
ii. Mallow
Brassica juncea:
-Mustard seed
Bryophyllum pinnatum (syn. B. calycinum):
i. Coriander seed
ii. Henbane seed (U)
Bryony:
i. Turbith;
ii. Jalap
Bryophyllum pinnatum:
i. Aerva (lanata, scandens);
ii. Bergenia ligulata;
iii. Coleus amboinicus
Buchanania lanzan:
-Almond
Buchu:
i. Rue;
ii. Yarrow (when used for its urinary effects)
Bugle:
-Self Heal
Bugloss:
-Borage
Burgundy Pitch:
-Canarium commune
Burnet: Saxifrage;
-Betony
Burungi:
-Doronicum
Butcher’s Broom root:
i. Asparagus root;
ii. Sea Holly root;
iii. Couch Grass root
Butcher’s Broom seed:
-Butcher’s Broom root
Butea frondosa (syn. B. monosperma):
-Kino gum; Gum Arabic; Brassica juncea
Butterbur:
-Coltsfoot (for Lungs);
-Costus
Buxus sempervirens (Box) (syn. B. papillosa):
-Rue, Syrian Rue (U)

Cabbage seed:
-Cumin (G)
Caesalpinia bonduc:
-leaves can be used for the seeds.
Caesalpinia pulcherrima:
-Senna (Ayurveda)
Caesalpinia sappan:
Haematoxylon campechianum
Calamint:
i. Sage (G);
ii. Wild Mint; Water Mint;
iii. Nettle
Calamus:
i. Angelica;
ii. Galangal;
iii. Orris;
iv. Valerian;
v. Cumin;
vi. Asarum,
vii. Spikenard;
viii. Juncus odoratus (Schoenanth):
ix. Musk
Calophyllum inophyllum:
-Mesua ferrea
Calotropis procera:
-Croton seed (Unani)
Camomile:
i. Ox-eye Daisy
ii. Chrysanthemum
Camphor:
i. Borneol Camphor:
ii. Red Sandalwood
iii. Essential oils of Elecampane; Thyme;
Southernwood; Sage; Rosemary; Oregano
Campion:
-Brank Ursine seed (G)
Candytuft:
-Angelica
Cannabis:
i. Poppy seed
ii. Henbane seed
iii. Wild Lettuce seed (U)
Cannabis seed:
i. Sesame seed;
ii. Linseed
Canscora decussata:
i. Convolvulus pluricaulis;
ii. Wild Lavender
Caper:
-Broom (Genista);
Caper root-bark:
i. Tamarisk bark; Tamarisk root (G);
ii. Poplar bark;
iii. Elder bark;
iv. Bayberry (Myrica) bark;
v. Heath root (G); 
vi. Gentian;
Caragana gerardiana:
-Sandalwood (T)
Caralluma tuberculata:
i. Gymnemma
ii. Mormordica charantia for Diabetes (U)
Caraway:
i. Dill seed;
ii. Annis;
iii. Fennel;
iv. Cumin;
v. Pepper
Cardamon:
i. Cyperus rotundus (G);
ii. Caraway;
iii. Cinnamon;
iv. Long Pepper;
v. Greater and Lesser Cardamons may substitute each other
Cardamon, Greater:
i. Nigella;
ii. Lesser Cardamon
Careya arborea bark:
i. Bayberry;
ii. leaves of the same plant (U)
Carpesium:
-Valerian
Carpobalsamum:
-see Balsam fruit
Carrot seed:
i. Annis;
ii. Fennel;
iii. Dill
Cashew nut:
i. Walnut,
ii. Almond
Cascara Sagrada:
i. Buckthorn (Rhamnus)
Cassia Fistula:
i. Tamarind;
ii. Prunes;
iii. Raisins;
iv. Licorice extract;
v. Manna;
vi. Turpeth (U)
Cassia bark/wood:
i. Cinnamon (double the amount);
ii. Savin
Cassia tora seed:
i. Cassia occidentalis;
ii. Psoralea corylifolia (U)
Cassia occidentalis seed:
i. C. tora seed;
ii. Psoralea corylifolia (U)
Catechu:
i. Red Ochre & Oak Galls (U);
ii. Picrorhiza (U)
Catnip:
-Mint, Wild
Cedrela toona:
-Cinchona
Cedrus:
-Hyssop
Celastrus paniculata seed:
i. Clove, Clove oil (U)
Celery:
i. Parsley
Celery seed:
i. Turnip seed
Celery, Wild/Mountain:
-Common Celery
Celtic Spikenard:
-Indian Spikenard
Centaury:
i. Gentian;
ii. Polium (Poley montane)
iii. Centaurea divaricata:
iv. Fumitory,
v. Swertia (U)
Centaurea phyllocephala (syn. C. bruguierana)
-Fumitory (Avicenna)
Centella asciatica:
i. Hydrocotyle rotundifolia, H. javanica;
ii. Cinnamon and Xanthoxylum alatum (U).
Centratherum anthelmintica:
-Caraway (U)
Chamepitys:
-Agrimony leaf
Chameleons Thistle, Black:
-White Bryony
Chaste tree leaf/seed:
-Rue leaf/seed
Cheiranthus cheiri:
-Red and White Behen (U)
Chenopodium album:
-Spinach (U)
Cherry tree gum:
i. Ivy gum;
ii. Peach tree gum
iii. Chick Pea root (Cicer):
iv. Sea Holly root
Chickweed:
-Purslane
Chicory:
i. Dandelion;
ii. Lettuce;
iii. Sowthistle;
iv. Endive
China root:
i. Sarsaparilla;
ii. Bittersweet;
iii. Burdock root;
iv. Barley
Chlorophytum arundinaceum:
-Onion
Chlorophytum tuberosum:
i. Asparagus racemosus; A. adscendens;
ii. Chlorophytum arundinaceum; C. laxum
Chonemorpha macrophylla:
i. Clematis gouriana;
ii. Marsdenia tenacissima;
iii. Sansevieria roxburghiana;
iv. Dragea volubilis
Chrysanthemum flowers:
-Camomile
Cicer:
-Sea Holly root
Cinnamon:
-Cinnamon tamala leaf
Cinnamon tamala leaf:
i. Cinnamon or Cassia bark,
ii. Indian Spikenard
iii. Valerian (U)
Cinchona:
i. Willow bark (U);
ii. Mugwort (India)
iii. shoots of Ceriops cendolleana;
iv. Soymida febrifuga;
v. Cedrela toona;
vi. Azadirachta indica bark (A);
vii. Arsenic has also been used.
viii. Swietenia mahogoni (West Indian
Mahogany) is used.
ix. Febrifuges used in place of Cinchona  
include: Bitter Almond, Peach Kernel,
Angelica, Arnica, Asarum, Calendula,
Centaury, Bittersweet, Andrographis etc.
Cinnamon:
i. double weight of Cassia bark;
ii. Canella bark
Cinquefoil:
i. Tormentil;
ii. Sea Holly root;
iii. Plantain
Cistanche tubulosa:
i. Pomegranate rind,
ii. Oak Galls (⅓ dose) (U)
iii. Gum Arabic (U)
Citron juice:
-Lemon juice
Citron peel:
-Lemon peel
Clematis gouriana:
i. Marsdenia tenacissima;
ii. Chonemorpha macrophylla;
iii. Sansevieria roxburghiana;
iv. Dragea volubilis
Clerodendrum (serratum, phlomidis):
i. Premna herbacea; Premna mucronata;
ii. Picrasma quassioides
Clerodendrum infortunatum:
-Swertia
Clinopodio:
-Heliotrope (G)
Clitoria ternatea:
i. Convolvulus pluricaulis;
ii. Canscora decussata;
iii. Wild Lavender (Lavender bipinnata, A);
iv. similar to Daphne mezereon.
Clitoria ternatea flower:
-Mulberry
Clove:
-Nutmeg
Cocculus hirsutus:
-Sarsaparilla; China root
Cocculus villosus:
-Sarsaparilla, China root
Cochlospermum gossypium gum:
i. Gum Tragacanth:
ii. Gum Arabic;
Cochlospermum religiosum:
i. Aloe (U);
ii. Tragacanth.
Coffee (as a beverage):
i. roasted Chicory root;
ii. roasted Dandelion root;
iii. roasted Asparagus seed;
iv. roasted Acorns;
v. roasted Cleavers seed
Colchicum:
i. Bdellium;
ii. Agaric;
iii. Squill;
iv. prepared Castor seed;
v. in Joint disease, Avicenna used equal
parts of Folium Alchane and half part of
Bdellium
Coleus amboinicus:
i. Aerva (lanata, scandens):
ii. Bergenia ligulata;
iii. Bryophyllum pinnatum
Coleus aromaticus:
-Laurus nobilis fruit (as lithontriptic)
Coleus forsskohlii (syn. C. barbatus):
i. Dolichos biflorus,
ii. Saxifraga ligulata;
iii. Jew’s Stone (when used for Stones) (U)
Colocynth:
i. Castor seed (G);
ii. Black Hellebore
Colophony:
-Resin
Coltsfoot:
i. Lungwort,
ii. Butterbur
Comfrey:
i. Brank Ursine (Acanthus mollis);
ii. Centaury (G)
Comfrey root:
-Comfrey leaf
i. Brank Ursine root (Acanthus mollis);
Condurago:
-Calamus
Contrayerva:
i. Swallow-wort (Vincetoxicum officinale);
ii. Cyperus longus
Convolvulus pluricaulis:
i. Canscora decussata;
ii. Clitoria ternatea;
iii. Wild Lavender (Lavender bipinnata)(A)
 Coptis Huang Lian:
i. Golden Seal: 
ii. Barberry;
iii. Picrorhiza (TCM);
iv. Scutellaria Huang Qin
v. Geranium wallichianum root (India).
Coptis teeta:
i. Tumeric, Myrrh (U);
ii. Picrorhiza
iii. Thalictrum foliolosum
Cordia latifolia:
-Delphinium denudatum (U)
Coriander leaf:
-Wild Parsley leaf
Cornus:
-Medlar
Corydalis cashmeriana:
-Camphor (T)
Coscinium fenestratum:
-Barberry
Costmary:
i. Feverfew;
ii. Tansy
Costus:
i. Juniper berry (G);
ii. Elecampane,
iii. Butterbur;
iv. Angelica root;
v. Zedoary;
vi. Gentian;
vii. Pyrethrum;
viii. Pepper root
ix. local Inula spp. (Inula racemosa) (India, Tibet)
Cotton root:
-Periwinkle
Couch grass:
-Barley
Cowslip root:
i. American Senega;
ii. Violet root
Cranesbill:
i. Tormentil
ii. Herb Robert
Cress:
-Cretan, Sciatica and Water cress can be used synonomously
Cretan Carrot:
i. Common Carrot (seed etc.);
ii. Parsnip;
iii. Celery
Cretan Cress:
-Water cress
Crinum asiaticum:
-Ipecacuanha
Crocomagma (refuse of oil and Saffron):
i. Oil of Saffron;
ii. Safflower;
iii. Aloeswood (G)
Croton:
i. Colocynth (U);
ii. Baliospermum montanum seed .
Cryptolepis buchanani:
-Periploca calophylla
Cubeb:
i. Zedoary;
ii. fruit of various Piper spp. (inc. ribesiodes,
sumatrana, crassipes, cannum, clusii etc.);
iii. Litsea cubeba fruit (Indonesia);
iv. Pericampylus glaucus fruit;
v. Vitex altissima (India);
vi. Embelia ribes
Cubeb, Carpesian:
i. Valerian;
ii. Cassia Lignea;
iii. Cinnamon;
iv. Zedoary
Cuckoo Flowers (Cardamine sp.):
i. Watercress
Cumin:
i. Caraway;
ii. Fennel;
iii. Annis;
iv. Cabbage seed (G)
Cumin, Egyptian:
-Nigella
Cumin, Ethiopian:
i. Caraway;
ii. Ammi majus
Currant:
i. Barberries;
ii. Sorrel
Cyclamen:
i. Cucumis asininus;
ii. Orris
Cypress leaf:
i. Juniper leaf;
ii. Savin leaf
Cypress nut:
i. Cardamom;
ii. Acorn cup
Cypress bark:
-Pomegranate bark
Cyperus rotundus:
i. Galangal;
ii. Cardamon;
iii. Juniper (G);
iv. Valerian
v. Wormwood,
vi. Fenugreek (U)
Cyphi:
-burnt dried Fig (G)

Dandelion:
-Chicory
Dandelion, Tibetan or Chinese:
i. European Dandelion;
ii. Picris hieracioides and Sonchus
brachyotus are equivalent plants (T)
Daphne laureola:
-Mistletoe
Dates:
-Figs
Datura:
-Belladonna
Daucus of Crete:
-Carrot
Dead Nettle:
-Lady’s Mantle
Decalepis hamiltonii:
i. substitute for Hemidesmus indicus (South india);
ii. Sarsaparilla
Delphinium (brunonianum & cashmirianum):
-Valerian (A)
Delphinium denudatum:
i. Kyllinga triceps (A);
ii. Cordia latifolia (U);
iii. Peony (U)
Delphinium zalil:
-Ficus heterophylla
Dendrobium (macraei, ovatum, normale):
i. Leptadenia reticulata
ii. Pholiodota articulata;
iii. Holostemma annularis
Desmodium gangeticum:
-Uraria picta
Digitalis:
i. Squill;
ii. Lily of the Valley
iii. Digitalis is an accepted substitute for
Terminalia arjuna in Unani.
iv. Rauwolfia (U).
Dill seed:
-St. John’s wort (G)
Dioscorea bulbifera:
-Habenaria (intermedia, acuminata, griffithi,
goodyeroides)
Dipterocarpus alatus:
-Terminalia tomentosa
Dittander (Lepidium):
-Madder (G)
Dittany:
i. Sage (G);
ii. Pennyroyal;
iii. Scordium;
iv. Doronicum
Dittany of Crete (Origanum dictamus):
i. Pennyroyal;
ii. Marjoram;
iii. White Dittany;
iv. Fraxinella
Dodder:
i. The Barefoot Doctors Manual (China) says the herb or seed may be used interchangeably. Dodder seed was used in place of Dodder of Thyme by Mesue.
ii. Colocynth seed (G);
Doronicum:
i. Angelica
ii. a third part Clove (Av)
iii. Galangal
iv. Zedoary
v. Dittany;
vi. Sphaeranthus indicus (U)
vii. Zerumbet;
Dracunculus:
-Aron (Wake Robin) (G)
Dracontium:
-Aron (Wake Robin) (G)
Dragea volubilis:
i. Clematis gouriana;
ii. Marsdenia tenacissima;
iii. Chonemorpha macrophylla;
iv. Sansevieria roxburghiana;
Dragons Blood:
i. Hematite
ii. Lettuce extract (U)
iii. Catechu (as an astringent)
Dryopteris chrysocoma:
i. Mallotus philippensis
ii. Croton
iii. Rottleria tinctora. (Unani)
Dwarf Elder (Ebulus):
-Elder

Ebony:
-Guiaicum wood
Eclipta alba and E. prostrata:
i. Dandelion;
ii. Cotton seed (U)
Elaterium:
i. White Hellebore;
ii. leaf-juice of Cucumeris aggrestis;
iii. Scammony;
iv. Leek juice (G)
Elder:
-Dwarf Elder
Elecampane:
i. Carline Thistle;
ii. Fleawort;  
iii. Flower de Luce;
iv. Orris;
v. Atracylodes Bai Zhu
Eleocharis dulcis:
-Scirpus kysoor
Embelia ribes:
-Myrsine africana
Endive:
-Chicory
Enicostemma littorale:
-Swertia chirayita
Ephdera fruit:
-Amomum subulatum (T)
Erisimum (Wild Mustard) seed:
-Rocket seed (G)
Erythraea roxburghii:
-Swertia
Esula:
-Turbith
Eupatorium of Mesue:
i. Agrimony
ii. Asarum & Wormwood (equal parts)
Euphorbium:
i. Agaric;
ii. Pigeon dung (G)
Evolvulus nummularius:
i. Merremia emarginata (syn. Ipomoea reniformis)
Exacum bicolor:
i. Swertia;
ii. Gentian

Fagonia cretica:
-Alhagi pseudalhagi
Fennel seed:
i. Annis;
ii. Caraway;
iii. Celery seed (U);
iv. Fennel root,
Fennel root:
-Asparagus root
Fenugreek:
-Linseed
Feronia elephantum:
-Gum Arabic
Ferula spp.:
-look under Asafetida, Galbanum, Opopanax.
Feverfew:
-Tansy
Ficus bengalensis:
– Ficus religiosa (leaf for leaf; root for root etc.) (U)
Field Mints:
-Calamint
Figs:
i. Dates;
ii. Raisins,
iii. Pine nuts (U)
Filipendula:
-Burdock root
Fir leaf:
-Poplar leaf
Fir tree resin:
-Frankincense
Flacourita indica:
-Gymnosporia spinosa
Flower de Luce:
-Elecampane
Foxglove:
see Digitalis
Frankincense:
i. Fir tree resin;
ii. Mastic;
iii. Bdellium (U)
Frankincense bark:
-Frankincense resin
Fritillaria roylei:
-Withania (Ayurveda)
Fumitory:
i. Hops;
ii. Senna;
iii. Sowthistle;
iv. Mollugo cerviana;
v. Polycarpaea corymbosa

Galangal:
i. Ginger,
ii. Calamus;
iii. Cyperus rotundus
Galbanum:
i. Asafetida;
ii. Sagapen;
iii. Gum Ammoniac;
iv. Pine tree gum;
v. Propolis
Galls (Nut Galls):
i. Oak bark;
ii. Tamarisk galls
Garlic:
i. Leek;
ii. Chebulic Myrobalan (the Sattvic alternative)
Gentian:
i. Wormwood;
ii. Tormentil,
iii. Century;
iv. Caper bark;
v. equal part of Asarum and half part Capers
root-bark (or Inula);
vi. Knapweed; Picrorhiza; Swertia; Exacum
bicolor (Ayurveda)
Gentiana urnula:
-Siberian Motherwort (Leonurus sibirica) (T)
Gentiana kurroo:
-Picrorhiza; Swertia; Gentian
Geranium spp.:
-Tormentil
Geranium wallichianum:
i. Alkanet (Alkanna tinctoria):
ii. Potentilla nepalensis;
iii. Tormentil spp.
Germander:
i. Ground Pine;
ii. Agrimony leaf;
iii.  Wild Dock root (G);
iv. Water Germander (U)
Ginger:
i. Galangal
ii. Black Pepper
Ginseng:
i. Codonopsis (common TCM substitute)
ii. In Unani medicine, Panax notoginseng
(San Qi) and Panax quinuefoilus are used
as substitutes for P. ginseng.
iii. Phoenix sylvestris (Date) has also been
used in Unani.
Glossocardia bosvallia:
-Fumitory
Gnaphalium affine:
-Filifolium sibiricum or Tanacetum sibiricum
Golden Seal:
i. Barberry (various other Berberis spp.);
ii. Picrorhiza;
iii. Chinese Scutellaria Huang Qin;
iv. Chinese Coptis Huang Lian
Gooseberry:
-Barberry
Grains of Paradise:
-Cardamom
Grape juice, sour/unripe:
-Lemon juice
Graptophyllum picum:
-Adhatoda vasica (A)
Grewia tiliaefolia:
-Marshmallow root
Ground Pine:
i. Agrimony leaf (G)
ii. Elder
iii. Germander
iv. Walwort
Guaiacum wood:
i. Oak wood;
ii. Box wood;
iii. Michelia champaca bark; Magnloia glauca bark
Gum Arabic:
i. Tragacanth;
ii. Marshmallow root;
iii. Acacia arabica gum;
iv. Catechu;
v. Oak bark decoction
vi. Peach tree resin; Cherry tree gum;
vii. dehydrated juice of Sloe fruit;
viii. Prunus insititia gum; Anogeissus latifolia gum;
Feronia elephantum
Gymnosporia spinosa:
-Flacourita indica

Habenaria (intermedia, acuminata, griffithi,
goodyeroides):
-Dioscorea bulbifera (A)
Haematoxylon campechianum:
-Caesalpinia sappan (Sappan wood)
Hartwort:
-Seseli
Hazel nut:
i. Pine nuts;
ii. Walnuts (U);
iii. Sweet Almond
Heartsease:
-Violet

Hedge-mustard seed:
i. Rocket seed;
iii. Soapwort (G)
Hedychium spicatum:
i. Zedoary,
ii. Kaempeferia (South India)
Hedyotis (syn. Oldenlandia):
-Fumitory (for Fevers)
Helicteres isora:
-Marshmallow root
Hellebore, Black:
i. Soapwort (G);
ii. Papyrus root (G);
iii. Lapis Lazuli;
iv. Satyrion
Hellebore, White:
i. Elaterium,
ii. Turpethum
Hemidesmus indicus:
i. Sarsaparilla; China root;
ii. Decalepis hamiltonii;
iii. Saccolabium papillosum;
iv. Ichnocarpus fruitescens;
v. Crytolepis buchananii;
vi. Periploca calophylla
Hemlock:
-Henbane (U)
Hemlock seed:
-Coriander seed (G)
Hemp seed:
-Wild Pomegranate seed
Henbane:
-Poppy
Henbane seed:
i. Poppy seed;
ii. Sweet Briar seed (G);
iii. Linseed
Herb Paris:
-Umbilicus Veneris (Pharm. August.)
-Sedum
Holarrhena antidysenterica:
i. Ailanthus excelsa;
ii. Wrightia tomentosa bark;
iii. Myrtus communis,
iv. Centaurea behen.
v. Cheiranthus cheiri (Unani)
Hollyhock:
i. Mallows;
ii. Marshmallow
Holostemma annularis:
i. Leptadenia reticulata:
ii. Dendrobium macraei; D. ovatum; D. normale;
iii. Pholiodota articulata
Horehound:
-Balm
Horsemint:
-Calamint
Horsetail:
-Chinese and European species can be used synonomously
Houseleek:
i. Lettuce;
ii. fresh Aloe;
iii. Black Nightshade
Hyacinth root:
-Alkanet (G)
Hypocystus:
i. Acacia juice (G);
ii. Pomegranate flower juice;
iii. Prunorum sylvestrium
Hyssop:
i. Thyme (G);
ii. Savory;
iii. Oregano
iv. Ichnocarpus frutescens:
v. Sarsaparilla

Indian Leaf:
i. Mace
ii. Clove;
iii. Cinnamon;
iv. Cassia wood (G);
v. Indian Spikenard (G);
vi. Celtic Spikenard
vii. Orris;
viii. Citron leaf
ix. Mace & Cyperus (equal parts) (Pharm. August.)
Indian nut:
-Pine nut
Indian Spikenard:
-Valerian is ‘not much inferior to the Nard
of India’. (G, Av)
Inula grantioides:
-Elecampane (U)
Inula racemosa:
i. Saussurea lappa;
ii. Costus speciosus,
iii. Elecampane
Ipecac:
i. Calamus;
ii. Asarum;
iii. Violet root (as an emetic);
iv. Herb True Love;
v. Crinum asiaticum (A);
vi. Randia dumetorum (A);
vii. Ruellia tuberosa;
viii. Strychnos potatorum;
ix. Tylophora fasciculata;
x. Viola cinerea root; Viola tricolor root
Ipomoea petaloidea:
-Turbith
Ipomoea reniformis:
-Evolvulus nummularius (syn Merremia
emarginata)
Iris florentina:
-Iris germanica
Iris germanica:
-Iris florentina
Isodon rugosus:
-Eyebright (when used for eye disorders)
Ivy gum:
i. Peach gum (G);
ii. Cherry gum

Jalap:
i. Turbith;
ii. White Bryony root;
iii. Rhamnus catharticus;
iv. Hedge Hyssop;
v. Pharbitis seed (Ipomoea nil, I. hederacea)
Jasmine flowers:
-Rosemary flowers
Jateorhiza palmata:
-Coscinium fenestratum (A)
Jujubes:
i. Raisins;
ii. Sebestens (U)
Juncus odoratus:
i. Cardamon (G);
ii. Indian Spikenard
Juncus palustri:
-Polygonum root (G)
Juniper:
i. Rue (U, as an emmenagogue);
ii. J. macropoda; J. oxycedrus are used synonymously in Ayurveda.
Justica picta:
-Adhatoda vasica
Justicia procumbens:
-Fumitory (for Fevers)

Kalanchoe pinnatum (syn. Bryophyllum sp):
i. Coriander seed,
ii. Henbane seed (U)
Kelp, burnt:
-burnt Sponge
Kino gum:
-Butea frondosa
Knapweed:
-Gentian
Knotgrass:
i. Plantain (G);
ii. Wormwood
Knotgrass seed:
-Celery seed
Krameria triandra:
i. Hemidesmus indicus

Lacca (Lac, Shellac):
i. Storax;
ii. Dragon’s Blood;
iii. Madder;
iv. Myrrh
Ladanum:
-Juniper berry (G)
Ladies Slipper:
i. Valerian;
ii. Chinese Lily bulb
Lady’s Mantle:
i. Dead Nettle;
ii. Sanicle
Lady’s Smock (Cardamine sp.):
-Watercress
Lagenaria spp. (‘White Gourd’):
-Pumpkin
Lagotis:
-Picrorhiza
Laurel leaf:
-Citron/Orange leaf
Lavender:
-Rosemary flowers
Lawsonia inermis (Henna):
-Psoralea corylifolia for skin conditions (U)
Leek:
-Garlic
Lemon Grass (Cymbopogon):
i. Black Pepper,
ii. Pyrethrum (U)
Lentisk leaf:
i. Cypress leaf;
ii. Pine leaf;
iii. Walnut
Lentisk seed:
-Parsnip seed
Lepidium root:
-Caper leaf (G)
Leptadenia reticulata:
i. Dendrobium macraei; D. ovatum; D. normale;
ii. Pholiodota articulata;
iii. Holostemma annularis;
Lettuce (wild):
i. Chicory,
ii. Endive,
iii. Purslane
Leucas capitata:
i. Eclipta,
ii. Achyranthes aspera (U)
Libantidos (Cedrus libant ?):
-Pyrethrum
Licorice:
i. Raisins;
ii. Astragalus glycyphyllos (‘Wild Licorice’);
iii. Taverniera cuneifolia
Licorice, Wild (Astragalus glycyphyllos);
-Licorice root
Licorice juice:
i. Licorice root;
ii. Licorice decoction 
iii. Raisin juice concentrated;
iv. Mulberry juice (G)
Lillifago:
-Calamint
Limnanthemum (cristatum, indicum):
-Swertia
Linden tree:
-Elm tree
Linseed:
i. Fenugreek;
ii. Sesame seed
Liverwort:
-Agrimony
Lobelia inflata:
-Lobelia nicotianaefolia, L. pyramidalis (A)
Long Birthwort:
see Birthwort
Long Pepper root:
-Ginger
Lotus:
-White Water Lily
Lotus seed:
-Beet seed (G)
Lovage:
i. Cumin;
ii. Annis;
iii. Caraway;
iv. Parsley; Parsnip seed (G);
v. Carrot seed;
vi Myrtle
Lovage seed:
-Carrot seed (G)
Luffa:
-Colocynth (U)
Lungwort:
i. Coltsfoot (cough, wheezing);
ii. Comfrey (consumption, spitting blood)

Macedonian Parsley:
i. seed of Alexander (Smyrnium olisatrum) (said
by Culpeper to be commonly used in the Shops);
ii. Cumin;
iii. seed of Italian or Continental Parsley.
Madder:
-Zanthoxylum alatum and Cinnamon (U)
Maidenhair:
i. Adiantum incisum; A. lunulatum; A. aethiopium;
A. pedatum; A. venustum;
ii. Shepherd’s Purse (Ayurveda);
iii. Violet (U);
iv. Licorice (U);
v. in Asthma Violet flower with Licorice juice (Mesue)
Magnolia glauca:
-Guaiacum
Malabathrum:
-Indian Spikenard
Malaxis muscifera:
-Pueraria tuberosa
Mallotus philippinensis:
-Embelia ribes (U)
Mallow:
i. Marshmallow;
ii. Fenugreek (G)
Mandrake, European:
i. Poppy;
ii. Nightshade;  
iii. Doronicum (G);
iv. Olive gum;
v. Asarum
Manna:
-Frankincense tree bark (G)
Marjoram:
i. Rosemary;
ii. Basil (A);
iii. Savory seed
Marsdenia volubilis:
-Long Pepper (U)
Marsdenia tenacissima:
i. Clematis gouriana;
ii. Chonemorpha macrophylla;
iii. Sansevieria roxburghiana;
iv. Dragea volubilis;
v. Turpeth (Marsdenia is a substitute for Turpeth)
Marshmallow:
-Mallow
Marum:
i. Cretan Dittany;
ii. Marjoram
Masterwort:
-Angelica
Mastic gum:
i. Licorice (when used to harmonise or moderate harsh herbs);
ii. Mastic stem (G);
iii. Myrrh; Frankincense and Pine resin mixed;
iv. Cypress gum;
v. Marshmallow root
Maudlin:
i. Agrimony;
ii. Costmary
Mechoacanna:
-White Bryony
Meconopsis spp. (Blue Poppy):
-Corn Poppy
Medlar fruit:
-Hawthorn berries
Melandrium glandulosum:
-Silene spp.
Melia azadirachta:
-Azadirachta indica
Meliot:
i. Red Clover;
ii. Camomile;
iii. Fig leaf (Av)
Melissophylum:
-Betony
Menyanthes hydrophyllum:
-Swertia
Menyanthes indica:
-Swertia
Meo:
-Myrobalan (G)
Mesua ferrea:
-Calophyllum inophyllum
Meu:
i. Angelica;
ii. Masterwort;
iii. Cyperus rotundus;
iv. Psylium
Michelia champaca:
-Guaiacum
Microlonchus divaricatus:
i. Fumitory,
ii. Swertia (U)
Micromeria capitellata:
i. Peppermint (A);
ii. Pennyroyal
Microstylis musifera:
-Pueraria tuberosa
Mints, Field:
-Calamint
Mint, Water:
-Calamint
Mint, Wild:
-Catnip
Mollugo cerviana:
-Fumitory (for Fevers)
Monk’s Rhubarb:
-Dock
Moringa pterygosperma:
-Horseradish root
Moss, tree:
-Valerian (G)
Mouse-ear:
-Plantain
Mulberry:
-Fig (G)
Mulberry juice:
-Licorice (G)
Myricaria rosea (syn. M germanica, M prostrata):
-Chebulic Myrobalan (T)
Myrsine africana:
-Embelia ribes
Myrobalan:
i. Myrobalans can substitute one another.
ii. generally Chebulic Myrobalan can be used for any.
iii. Galen listed Rue as a substitute.
iv. Spignel (Meu) was also used
Myrrh:
-Bdellium (‘Guggulu’)
Myrtle leaf and berry:
i. may be used for one another;
ii. half ripe Hazelnuts;
iii. Sumac

Nardostachys jatamansi:
-Valerian
Nardo Syriaca:
-Juncus odoratum (G)
Navelwort:
-Houseleek
Nephritic wood:
-Birch wood
Nightshade, Black:
i. Houseleek;
ii. Winter Cherry (Av);
iii. Sedum
Nightshade, Deadly:
-Black Nightshade
Nothosaerva brachiata:
-Aerva lanata
Nutmeg:
i. Mace;
ii. Clove;
iii. Spikenard
Nux Vomica:
i. Securinega suffruticosa (A);
ii. Semecarpus anacardium (U);
iii. Castor seed

Oldenlandia retrorsa, O. corymbosa:
i. Fumitory,
ii. Swertia
Oligochaeta ramosa:
i. Fumitory,
ii. Swertia (U)
Olive leaf:
-Plantain leaf
Operculina petaloidea:
-Turbith
Opium:
i. dried Wild Lettuce juice;
ii. Poppy seed;
iii. concentrated Poppy decoction;
iv. Meconium;
v. Henbane seed;
vi. Scoparia dulcis decoction;
vii. Sophora japonica extract;
viii. Sterculia alata seed;
ix. Celandine (for Cough);
x. Mandrake juice thickened;
xi. Castoreum
Opobalsamum (Balsam oil):
see Balsam oil
Opopanax:
i. Myrrh;
ii. Bdellium;
iii. Gum Ammoniac;
iv. Galbanum;
v. Asafetida
Orchis (Satyrion):
i. Rocket seed (G):
ii. Peony root (G);
iii. Wild Asparagus root;
iv. Skink;
v. Eulophia spp; Eulaliopsis binata;
vi. Lilium wallichianum (Lung complaints);
vii. Polygonatum verticillatum;
viii. Allium macleanii (in Afghanistan);
ix. Nettle seed
Oregano:
i. Southernwood,
ii. Wormwood
Oregano, Persian:
i. Thyme;
ii. Pennyroyal;
iii. Calamint;
iv. Hyssop
Oregon Grape root:
-Barberry bark
Orminio:
-Linseed (G)
Orobus:
i. Fenugreek seed;
ii. Red Chick Peas;  
iii. White Dittany
Orris:
-Thyme
Orris, Florentine:
-Iris Germanica
Osmund Royal root:
-Male Fern root
Ox-Eye Daisy:
-Camomile
Oxyrhodion:
-White Wine

Palm (for Diapalma):
i. Myrtle;
ii. Elm;
iii. Willow
Papaya:
-Coconut (U)
Pareira:
i. Parsley root;
ii. Burdock root
Parsley:
i. Betony;
ii. Celery;
iii. Fennel;
iv. Cumin
Parsley, Macedonian:
i. seed of Alexander (Smyrnium olisatrum)
ii. Common Parsley seed.
Parsnip, Wild:
i. Asparagus racemosus;
ii. Polygonatum verticillatum
Pastinaca secacul:
i. Asparagus racemosus;
ii. Polygonatum verticillatum
Pavonia odorata:
i. Serpentary root
Peach kernel:
i. Bitter Almond;
ii. Apricot kernel (T)
Peach tree resin:
-Gum Arabic
Pelecini:
-Nigella seed
Pellitory:
-Ginger (G)
Pellitory of the Wall:
-Chickweed
Pennyroyal:
-American & European are used similary.
Pentaphyllum:
-Tormentil
Peony root, European:
-Chinese White Peony Bai Shao
Peony seed:
-Peony root
Pepper, Black:
i. Ginger;
ii. Juniper berry;
iii. Chili
Pepper, White:
-twice the weight of Black Pepper (G)
Peppermint:
-Micromeria capitellata (A)
Periploca calophylla:
-Cryptolepis buchanani
Pharbitis seed (Ipomoea nil, I. hederacea):
i. Jalap;
ii. Turbith
Phlomis tuberosa:
-Poria Fu Ling (T)
Pholiodota articulata:
i. Leptadenia reticulata:
ii. Dendrobium macraei, D. ovatum, D. normale (A);
iii. Holostemma annularis
Phu:
-Valerian
Phyllanthus emblica:
i. Oak galls;
ii. the fruit of Berberis aristata is used in Tibet.
Picrasma quassioides:
-Quassia
Picrorhiza:
i. Scutellaria Huang Qin;
ii. Berberis spp.
Pilosella (Mouse-ear):
-Plantain
Pine nut:
i. Cucumber seed (G);
ii. Hazel nut,
iii. Walnut (U);
iv. Pistachio
Pinus tabuliformis:
-Pinus sylvestris (T)
Pistachio:
-Pine nut
Plantain seed:
-Linseed (externally)
Pluchea lanceolata (syn. P. indica, P. foliosa, P. arguta):
i. Greater Galangal (Alpina galanga);
ii. others used in India include Vanda roxburghii, Blepharispermum subsessile and Dodonaea viscosa;
iii. it has been used as a substitute for Sarsaparilla.
Plumera obtusa:
-P. alba and P. acutifolia (U)
Podophyllum (American Mandrake):
-White Bryony
Poley Montane:
-Centaury
Poley Montane seed:
-Rocket seed (G)
Polycarpea corymbosa:
-Fumitory (for Fever)
Polygonatum cirrhifolium:
i. Asparagus racemosus;
ii. Orchis (A)
Polygonatum verticillatum:
i. Asparagus racemosus (A);
ii. Pastinaca secacul (U)
Polygonum viviparum:
-Bistort
Polypody:
-Carline Thistle root (G)
Polytrichum:
i. Maidenhair;
ii. Wormwood (G);
iii. Ginger
Pomegranate fruit rind:
-Oak Bark
Pomegranate root bark:
-Male fern
Pomegranate flower:
i. Pomegranate fruit rind (G);
ii. Cumin seed,
iii. Oak bark (Unani)
Pongamia pinnata (syn. P. glabra):
-Podophyllum peltatum (for external use)
Poplar leaf:
-Fir leaf
Poppy, White:
i. Black Nightshade:
ii. Black Poppy (in a lesser quantity);
iii. Henbane leaf;
iv. Mandrake
Poppy capsules:
-Poppy seed
Poppy juice:
-Mandrake juice (G)
Poppy, Yellow-horned (Glaucium):
i. Lettuce juice;
ii. Bistort juice
Prosopis juliflora:
-P. glandulosa, P. cineraria (U)
Pterocephalus hookeri
-Dandelion
Pueraria tuberosa:
-Microstylis musifera; M. wallichii
Pumpkin seed:
-Musk Melon or Watermelon seeds
Purslane:
-Chickweed
Pyrethrum:
i. Ginger (G);
ii. Costus;
iii. Stavesagre;
iv. Chrysanthemum flower;
v. Pimpinella saxifrage

Quassia:
i. Picrasma quassioides;
ii. Samadera indica
Quercus spp.:
-the bark of many species have been used similarly
Quinine:
-Yarrow extract;
-shoots of Ceriops cendolleana

Radermachera xylocarpa:
-Stereospermum personatum
Radish root:
-Turnip (U)
Radish seed:
-Mustard seed (U)
Radish seed and juice:
-can be interchanged
Raisin:
-Date
Randia dumetorum:
-Ipecac
Rauwolfia:
-Digitalis (U)
Restharrow:
-Licorice?
Rhamnus catharticus:
i. White Bryony;
ii. Jalap;
iii. Turbith
Rhaponticum:
i. Rhubarb;
ii. Tormentil
Rhazya stricta:
-Catharanthus roseus (U)
Rhubarb (as a laxative):
i. Rose juice;
ii. Bayberry root;
iii. Rhapontic (double quantity)
Rhubarb (as an astringent):
i. Bistort;
ii. Galangal (if warming is required)
Rhubarb, Pontic:
i. Centaury Major;
ii. Rhubarb
Rice:
-Wheat
Rocket:
i. Mustard;
ii. Cheiranthus cheiri
Rorippa indica:
-seeds of Dontostemon integrifolius
Rose juice:
-Peach tree leaf juice (G)
Rosemary:
-Marjoram
Round Birthwort:
see Birthwort
Rubus sp.:
-many species have been used similarly to Raspberry, including the Rubus species of Tibet and India.
Rue:
i. Tansy;
ii. Ruta angustifolia
Rue seed:
i. Cumin;
ii. Agnus Castus
Ruellia tuberosa:
-Ipecac
Rungia repens:
-Fumitory
Ruta angustifolia:
-Rue

Saffron:
i. Safflower;
ii. Arnica;
iii. Calendula;
iv. Crocomagma (G);
v. Costus,
vi. Valerian (U);
vii. Aloe;
viii. an equal amount of Costus with a quarter part Cassia Wood (Av)
Safflower:
-Agnus Castus (G)
Sagapen:
i. Asafetida;
ii. Galbanum;
iii. Pine gum (G);
iv. Gum Ammoniac,
v. Propolis
Sage:
i. Dittany,
ii. Calamint (G)
St. John’s wort:
i. Schoenanth;
ii. Dill seed (G)
St. Peters wort:
-St. John’s wort
St. Mary’s Thistle:
-Blessed Thistle
Salix spp.:
-the bark of many Willows have been used similarly.
Salmalia malabarica:
i. Gum Arabic,
ii. Catechu (U)
Salvadora oleioides:
-S. persica (U)
Samadera indica:
-Quassia
Sandalwoods:
i. three Sandalwoods are used similarly and can
generally substitute one another
ii. Ximenia americana wood
Sanicle:
-Ladies Mantle
Sansevieria roxburghiana:
i. Clematis gouriana;
ii. Marsdenia tenacissima;
iii. Chonemorpha macrophylla;
iv. Dragea volubilis
Sapa:
-Honey
Sapindus mukorossi, S. trifoliatus (Soap nut):
-Emblic Myrobalan (U)
Saraca indica:
i. Catechu,
ii. bark of Acacia arabica (U)
Sarcocolla:
-Frankincense
Sarcostemma brevistigma:
-Ephedra
Sarsaparilla:
i. China root;
ii. Bittersweet;
iii. Burdock root
Sassafras:
i. Juniper wood;
ii. Lindera nessiana (India)
Satyrion:
see Orchis
Saussurea lappa:
i. Inula racemosa
ii. Cyperus rotundus
Savin:
i. Thuja;
ii. Cypress leaf;
iii. Juniper leaf;
iv. Ash tree leaf
Savory:
i. Hyssop;
ii. Oregano;
iii. Thyme
Saxifrage:
-Burnet
Saxifrage, Tibetan (Sum cu tig):
i. Swertia
Saxifraga ligulata:
see Bergenia
Scammony:
i. Castor seed;
ii. internal parts of the seed of Castor (G);
iii. Elder root bark;
iv. Lily of the Valley;
v. Lesser Spurge;
vi. Sarcocolla
Schizachyrium exile:
-Delphinium zalil
Schoenanth (Juncus odoratus):
i. Indian Spikenard;
ii. Calamus;
iii. Cardamon 
Sciatica Cress:
-Water cress
Scirpus kysoor:
-Eleocharis dulcis
Scordium:
-Dittany
Sea Holly:
i. Parsnip root;
ii. Cinquefoil
Sebesten:
i. Damask Prune;
ii. Jujube (U)
Sedum:
-Nightshade
Selinum vaginatum:
i. Indian Spikenard;
ii. Valerian
Semecarpus anacardium:
i. Balsam oil, Indian
ii. Bdellium (U)
Senega, American:
i. Cowslip root:
ii. Violet root;
iii. Polygala chinensis (TCM); Polygala sibirica
Senna:
i. Ash tree;
ii. Peach kernel;
iii. Safflower seed;
iv. Linum catharticum;
v. Mercury (herb)
Seseli:
i. Hartwort;
ii. Dittany;
iii. Aniseed;  
iv. Peucedanum seed;
v. Brank Ursine was used for the seed
Sesame oil:
i. Sweet Almond oil;
ii. Olive oil
Sesame seed:
-Linseed (G)
Sesbania grandiflora gum:
-Gum Arabic
Shepherd’s Purse:
-Maidenhair (Ayurveda)
Ship pitch:
-Colophony (G)
Shorea robusta resin:
i. Pine resin;
ii. Bdellium;
iii. Vateria indica
Sida cordifolia:
i. Ephedra;
ii. Urena lobata;
iii. Tamarisk indica seed kernel (U)
Siler Montanum (Siler Montane):
i. Cumin;  
ii. a substitute for Caraway in old Europe.
Sison:
-Carrot
Sisymbrium officinale:
i. Basil (G);
ii. Sisymbrium irio;
iii. Wormwood,
iv. Swertia (U)
Slippery Elm bark:
-English, European and Black Elm barks are all used similarly
Smallage (Celery):
i. Fennel,
ii. Parsley
Smyrnium:
i. Parsley;
ii. Cumin
Soloman’s Seal:
-Asparagus racemosa (A)
Sophora davidii seeds:
-Caragana microphylla seed
Sorrel:
i. Plantain seed (U);
ii. Black Violet
Southernwood:
i. Oregano (G),
ii. Wormwood;
iii. Wormseed;
iv. Polium
Sowthistle:
i. Fumitory,
ii. Chicory
Soymida febrifuga bark:
-Oak bark
Spang rgyam (small-leaved Gentian used in
  Tibetan Medicine):
-Chinese Gentian Long Dan Cao
Sphaeranthus indicus:
i. Juniper;
ii. Tephrosea purpura,
iii. Echinops achinatus (U)
Spignel:
i. Myrobalan (G);
ii. Cyperus rotundus
Spike Lavender:
-Common Lavender
Spikenard:
i. Celtic and Indian Spikenard may replace one another:
ii. Schoenanth;
iii. Asarum;
iv. Valerian
Spikenard, Syrian:
-Squinanth
Sponge:
-Kelp
Sponge, burnt:
-burnt Kelp
Squaw root:
-Motherwort
Squill:
-Onion
Squinanth:
i. Calamus;
ii. Cardamon;
iii. Spikenard
Star Annis:
i. Annis;
ii. Fennel
Starch:
-dried flour (G)
Stavesacre:
-Pyrethrum
Sterculia urens gum:
-Gum Tragacanth
Stereospermum personatum:
-Radermachera xylocarpa
Sticados:
-Germander
Stoechas:
i. Lavender,
ii. Calamus,
iii. Dodder (U);
iv. Rosemary;
v. Prunella vulgaris (Ayurveda)
Stone Parsley (Sison) seed:
i. Anise (G);
ii. Carrot seed
Storax:
i. Lacca;
ii. Benzoin;
iii. Altingia excelsa;
iv. Calamus
Storax,
i. Red: Storax;
ii. Olibanum;
iii. Altingia excelsa
Stratiote aquatica:
-Lens palustris (Duckweed)
Sugar:
i. Beet Sugar;
ii. Honey;
iii. Maple syrup
Sumac:
-Myrtle
Sum cu tig (Tibetan):
-Swertia
Sweet Rush:
i. Cardamon;
ii. Knotgrass root (G)
Swertia chirayita:
i. Gentian;
ii. Centaury;
iii. Andrographis paniculata;
iv. also Amphicome emodi; Clerodendrum infortunatum;
Enicostemma littorale; Adenema hyssopifolium; Erythraea roxburghii; Exacum bicolor; Limnanthemum cristatum;
Syrian Rue seed (Peganum):
i. Rue seed,
ii. Ajwain seed,
iii. Radish seed,
iv. Henna seed (U);
v. White Dittany

Tabasheer:
i. starch of Arrowroot;
ii. starch of Curcuma angustifolia (API)
iii. Spodium (burnt Ivory or Bone)
Talinum triangulare:
-Amaranthus gangeticus
Tamarind:
i. Damask Prune;
ii. Cassia Fistula
Tamarisk:
i. Asplenium;
ii. Scolopendrium;
iii. Caper root bark;
iv. Galls;
v. Broom tops
Tamarisk Wood:
i. Ash wood,
ii. Caper bark;
iii. Scolopendria
Tansy:
i. Feverfew;
ii. Rue;
iii. Costmary
Taverniera cuneifolia:
-Licorice
Taxus wallichiana:
-T. baccata,
-Cinnamon (U)
Terebinth:
-Larch tree resin
Terminalia arjuna:
-Digitalis
Tetragonia expansa:
-Spinach
Teucrium stoksianum:
-T. scordium (U)
Thalictrum foliolosum:
-Coptis teeta
Thlaspi:
-Nasturtium
Thuja:
i. Savin;
ii. Cypress
Thyme:
i. Common Thyme and Mother of Thyme (Wild)
are used similarly;
ii. Oregano;
iii. Hyssop;
iv. Savory
Tinospora cordifolia:
-T. malabarica
Tinospora malabarica:
-T. cordifolia
Titymallis:
-Scammony
Tormentil:
i. Cinquefoil (weaker);
ii. Bistort;
iii. Gentian
Trachelospermum fragrans:
-Alstonia scholaris
Tragacanth:
i. Gum Arabic;
ii. Cochlospermum gossypium gum;
iii. Sterculia urens (A);
iv. Southernwood
Tribulus Marinus:
-Tribulus Terrestris
Trichomanes (Red type of Maidenhair):
-Maidenhair
Tsher sngon (Meconopsis spp.):
-Corn (Red) Poppy
Turpentine, Venice:
-resin of the Fir tree
Turbith:
i. Mullein root;
ii. Agaric;
iii. Esula root;
iv. Marsdenia tenacissima root (preferred as a cathartic in India as it is less drastic.
Tutsan:
-St. Johns wort
Tylophora fasciculata:
-Ipecac

Uraria picta:
-Desmodium gangeticum
Uva Ursi:
-Yarrow (when used for its urinary effect)

Valerian:
i. Delphinium (brunonianum & cashmirianum);
ii. Valerian wallichi;
iii. Nardostachys jatamansi
Valeriana hardwicki:
-Nymphoides macrospermum (A)
Vateria indica:
i. Shorea robusta resin;
ii. Pine resin;
iii. Amber
Verbena:
-Betony
Vernonia anthelmintica:
-Caraway (U)
Vernonia javanica:
-Betel leaf
Vinca rosea:
i. Periwinkle,
ii. Cotton root,
iii. Gelsemium sempervirens (U)
Violet root:
-Cowslip root
Violet flower:
i. V. cinera, V. serpens are used as local substitutes in India.
ii. Rose 
iii. Borage flower;
Virginian Snake-root:
i. Milkwort (Polygala vulgaris);
ii. Bearberry;
iii. Wild Valerian;
iv. Cyperus articulatus (and possibly Cyperus rotundus)
Viscum monoicum (grows on Nux-vomica tree):
-Nux Vomica
Viscum orientale (grows on Nux-vomica tree):
-Nux Vomica
Vitex altissima:
-substitute for Agnus-castus (South India)
Vitex negundo:
-substitute for Agnus-castus (South India)
Volutarella divaricata:
i. Fumitory,
ii. Swertia (U)

Wallwort:
i. Elder;
ii. Ground Pine
Wall-Pepper:
-Lettuce leaf or juice (G)
Walnut:
i. Black Walnut (Jugulus nigra) is used synonomously with the English Walnut (J. regia)
ii. Pistachio
Water cress:
-Basil (G)
Water Dock:
-Yellow Dock
Water Lily, White:
i. Lettuce;
ii. Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)
Watermelon seed (oil):
-Almond (oil)
Wheat:
i. Spelt,
ii. Rice
White Dead Nettle:
i. Lady’s Mantle,
ii. Sage
White Hellebore:
-Elaterium
Wild Licorice (Astragalus glycyphyllos):
-Licorice root
Wild Mustard seed (Erysium):
-Rocket seed (G)
Wild Rue (Harmal):
i. Rue seed;
ii. Henna seed (A);
iii. White Dittany;
iv. Agnus Castus;
v. St. John’s wort
Willow:
-Water Lily (as a febrifuge) (U)
Winter Cherry:
-Nightshade fruit
Woodfordia fruticosa (syn. W. floribunda) flower:
i. Catechu,
ii. Pomegranate rind (U)
Wormseed:
-Sothernwood
Wormwood:
i. Oregano (G)
ii. Southernwood (G);
iii. Polium
iv. Avicenna said when used to strengthen the Stomach, an equal amount of Valerian mixed with half the amount of Chebulic Myrobalan was effective.
Wrightia tinctoria (syn. W. rothii),
i. W. tomentosa:
ii. Walnut,
iii. Centaurea behen,
iv. Holarrhena antidysenterica bark (U)

Ximenia americana:
i. fruit is used as a substitute for Lemon;
ii. Wood is a substitute for Sandalwood;
Xylobalsamum:
-see Balsam Wood
Yarrow:
i. Camomile (U);
ii. Mugwort

Zanthoxylum armatum (syn. Z. alatum):
-Cubeb (U)
Zataria multiflora:
-Wild Thyme
Zedoary:
i. Ginger;
ii. Cyperus rotundus;
iii. Hedychium spicatum
Zerumbet:
i. Zedoary;
ii. Cinnamon;
iii. Cassia Lignea;
iv. Cubeb;
v. Nutmeg
Ziziphora tenuior:
i. Wild Mint,
ii. Orris (U)

Alum:
-Fossile Salt or Rock Salt
Alum, Scissile:
-Roch Alum
Alum, Roch:
-Alum Scissile
Amber:
i. Copal;
ii. Juniper tee gum;
iii. Vateria indica (White Damnar resin) (Unani)
Amianthus (Actinolite?):
i. Moonstone;
ii. burnt Gypsum
Antimony: burnt
i. Lead;
ii. burnt Tin
Armenian Earth:
i. Dragons Blood;
ii. Pomegranate flower
Arsenic:
i. Sandarac;
ii. Mercury Sublimate
Asphalt;
i. Agnus Castus seed;
ii. Wood or Fruit of the Balsam tree;
iii. Aloeswood;
iv. Yellow Sandalwood;
v. root of Greater Centaury;
vi. Nettle seed;
vii. Rocket seed
Azurite (Lapis Armenius):
i. Lapis Lazuli;
ii. Senna

Bitumen of Judea:
i. Pix liquida (Tar);
ii. Amber
Blatta Byzantina:
-‘Purple and Trumpet Shell’
Cadmia (Zinc carbonate):
-Zinc oxide
Cappadocian salts:
-Sal ammoniac (G)
Ceruse:
-Zinc oxide; Zinc carbonate
Chalcanthite (native Copper Sulphate):
-Vitriol
Chalcitis:
i. Sory (both different types of Copper Sulphate);
ii. Calcined Vitriol
Chrysocolla mineral:
-Azurite
Cinnabar:
i. Vermillion (man-made)
ii. Hematite;
iii. Magnetite;
iv. Lapis Lazuli;
v. Minium
‘Cinnabar of the Greeks’:
–Lapis Lazuli
Copper dross:
-Egyptian Melanterite (G)
Copper sublimate (‘Flowers of Copper’):
-Verdigris
Coral, Red:
i. White Coral (especially with a little Hematite added);
ii. Comfrey root

Diamond bhasma:
-Bhasma of Tourmaline
Earths:
i. in general, the Earths may be used fairly interchangably. The main difference being in the color: most commonly, red and white earths are used. The Red Earths invariably contain Iron oxide, and are therefore more used for Bleeding.
Earth of Armenia (Red Earth):
i. Dragons Blood;
ii. Pomegranate flower;
iii. Acorn cups
Earth of Lemnos:
-Red (Armenian) Earth
Earth, Samnian:
-Hematite
Earth, Sealed (Terra Sigillata):
-Lemnian or Armenian Earth
Emerald:
i. Prase;
ii. Green Jasper;
iii. Chrysoberyl
Emery stone:
-Pumice
Fossile Salt:
-Alum

Gold:
i. Silver;
ii. Cinnabar;
iii. Mercury
Hematite:
i. Magnetite;
ii. Cinnabar;
iii. Dragon’s Blood
Indian Salt:
-Rock Salt
Jet:
-Amber
Jew’s Stone:
see Lapis Judaicus

Lapis Judaicus:
i. Dolichos biflorus (Unani);
ii. common ‘Spar-stone’ (Pharmacopoea Bateana);  
iii. Sponge stone;
iv. Coleus spp.
Lapis Lazuli:
i. Azurite;
ii. Black Hellebore;
iii. The Tabula Antidotarii of Armengaud said decoction of
Senna worked more similarly to Lapis Lazuli than Armenian Stone
Lapis Lyncis:
see Lynx stone
Lapis Phrygius:
i. Magnetite;
ii. Pyrite;
iii. Marcasite
Lapis Scissili:
i. Gypsum;
ii. Hematite
Lapis Smiride/Smiri:
-Pumex
Lapis Specularis:
-Gypsum
Lapis Stellato/Stellari:
-Hematite
Lead:
i. Tin;
ii. Antimony
Lead, burnt:
-Antimony
Litharge:
-burnt Lead
Lynx stone:
i. Lapis Judaicus;
ii. Amber

Magnetite:
i. Hematite (G);
ii. Cinnabar
Mercury:
i. Cinnabar;
ii. Gold
Mercury Sublimate:
-Arsenic
Minium:
-Cinnabar
Misy:
i. Vitriol;
ii. Chalcitis;
iii. Sory
Molybdium:
-Litharge (G)
Mummy (Mumia=Shilajit):
i. Myrrh and Madder combined when used internally;
ii. Pissasphaltum for external use.
Mummy (Egyptian Mummy)
–Mix of Asphalt powder (100 parts) Boswellia (40 parts), Aloe powder (10 parts), Colophony, Spruce resin (20 parts), rown ocher as fine powder (20 parts), melt together.

Orpiment:
-Realgar
Osteocolla:
i. Comfrey root
ii. Soloman’s Seal root
Pearl:
i. Mother of Pearl
Pissasphaltum:
i. Asphalt;
ii. mixture of Pitch and Bitumen;
iii. Shilajit
Potassium bromide:
-Black Willow bark
Pumice:
-Cuttle bone (G)

Realgar:
i. Orpiment;
ii. Sulphur viv (G)
Red Ochre:
-Catechu
Rock Salt:
-Sea Salt
Ruby:
-Garnet

Sal Ammoniac:
-Rock Salt
Shilajit:
see Mummy
Stibium (Black Lead, Antimony?):
-burnt Tin
Sulphur:
-Garlic
Tartar:
-Niter
Terra Ampelites:
-Frankincense (G)
Terra Samia:
-Hematite

Umbilicus Veneris (shell):
i. Purslane;
ii. Houseleek
Verdigris:
i. Rust of Iron;
ii. Copper Sublimate;
iii. Burnt Copper
Zinc Carbonate:
-Zinc oxide

Ambergris:
i. Pyrethrum;
ii. Aloeswood;
iii. Storax (double dose)
iv. Musk and Saffron in equal parts (U)
Antalium (a shell):
-Whelk shell
Antelope horn:
-Goat horn

Bear Bile:
i. Bile of a Rabbit, Bull, Goat or Partridge;
ii. Veronica cillata (syn. V. cephaloides) (T)
iii. Saussurea ilkiangensis (female), S. pachyneura (T)
iv. Saffron (T)
Bear Fat:
-Fox fat (G)
Bears Tooth:
-Hogs Tooth
Bezoar:
i. Tabasheer
ii. Bezoar Animale
iii. Artificial Bezoar (Bile or Bile salts in compound)
iv. Pedicularis longiflora (syn. P. tubiformis, P. longiflora) (T)
Bile:
i. Gentian;
ii. Asarum and Caper bark, mixed together;
iii. Aloe
Blood:
i. Saffron;
ii. Minium (T)
Bone of a Stag’s Heart:
i. Deer horn; Burnt
ii. Deer horn;
iii. Unicorn horn;
iv. Emerald;
v. Pearl
Butter:
i. Ghee;
ii. Vegetable Oil

Cantharides:
-Plumbago rosea
Capon:
-Hen
Capon fat:
-Chicken fat
Castoreum:
i. Valerian
ii. Styrax;
iii.. Asafetida (G);
iv. Rue, Calamus equal parts with half part Pepper (Av)
v. Fox testes (Salmon);
vi. Musk
Chermes:
-Pimpinella root
Civet:
i. Musk;
ii. Storax;
iii. Benzoin
Cochineal:
i. Red Sandalwood (A, U);
ii. ‘instead of Cochineal may be used Barbadoes
Indigo’. (PE)
Cod-Liver oil:
-Mullein
Conch shell:
-Oyster shell
Crab’s Eyes:
-Cuttlefish bone
Cuttle bone:
-Pumice stone (G)

Dentalium (a shell):
-Cockle shells
Deer horn:
-Goat horn
Deer horn, burnt:
-Goat horn, burnt
Deer Fat, Suet:
-fat of a Goat or Goose

Fox Lungs:
-Lamb lungs.
Genitals:
i. Bull or Deer Pizzle can be used for any other
ii. Velvet Deer horn may also substitute animal genitalia.
Ghee:
-Vegetable (Sesame) oil
Goose fat:
-Duck or Chicken fat

Heart:
-Choerospondias (T)
Honey:
i. Sugar;
ii. Molasses;
iii. Date (U)
Human Blood:
-Pork or Bull Blood
Human flesh:
-Vulture flesh (T)

Kidneys:
-Canavalia or Mucuna (T)
Lac, Lacca (Shellac):
i. Dragon’s Blood,
ii. Storax
Lepore Marino (Sea Hare):
-River Crab
Liver:
-Lamb or Pig Liver may replace other Liver

Marrow:
-Lanolin (for external only)
Milk:
-Almond or Soy Milk
Mummy (Mummified human flesh):
i. Shilajit
ii. Pissasphaltum;
iii. Myrrh;
iv.. Spermaceti
Musk:
i. Civet; Castoreum;
ii. Valerian;
iii. Storax; Benzoin;
iv. Musk seed;
v. Ferula sumbul
vi. Delphinium brunonianum (syn. D. moschatum) (T)
vii. Synthetic Musk

Propolis:
i. Ammoniacum;
ii. Gum Terebinth
Rhinoceros Horn:
-Water Buffalo horn concentrate (TCM)
Skink:
i. Orchis (G);
ii. Rocket seed
Spodium, Arabian:
i. immature Rose buds;
ii. ‘burnt roots of Tabasheer’ (RE);
iii. Tabasheer itself (see the Glossary);
iv. Burnt Deer horn
Spodium, Greek:
i. Zinc carbonate;
ii. Zinc oxide;
iii. washed Lead

Unicorn (Narwal) horn:
i. Water Buffalo horn;
ii. Pearl;
iii. Bone of a Stag’s Heart (Augustana)
iv. Burnt Deer horn
Vulture dung:
-Pigeon dung
Wolf fat:
i. Deer fat;
ii. Fox fat